For example, Smith [30] discovered a substantial portion of missing death date data (e.g., unknown death dates) in former MLB players in the Sean Lahman Baseball Archive [74]. Report No. 1 for the PRISMA statement [33]. As a result, the historical investigations of elite athletes and longevity outcomes need to be cautiously interpreted and discussed in the contexts of a variety of possible influential factors of mortality. 2005;20:23742. Major League Baseball players life expectancies. As a result, the extent of our knowledge about the influence of certain variables on longevity may be restricted. Mortality resulting from head injury in professional boxing. 31 Jan 2006. http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=2313476. Beaglehole R, Stewart A. Although it appears that there are many unanswered questions concerning athletes lifespan longevities, Teramoto and Bungum [16] presented enough empirical evidence to determine some cross-sport and energy system trends. Kuss O, Kluttig A, Greiser KH. Athletes, doctors, and lawyers with first names beginning with D die sooner. Does education matter? Professional Athlete Montgomery H, Safari L. Genetic basis of physical fitness. This lack of information about later phases of athletes lifespans may be attributable to several factors, such as the greater access to athletes during their competitive careers as well as the preponderance of participation- and performance-based theories focusing on elements related to understanding the antecedents of sporting success (e.g., [2]). It is important for future research to determine which factors are more robust predictors of longevity and if they continue to be relevant in later life. Similar to Teramoto and Bungums [16] research questions, we asked the following: (1) do elite athletes have superior longevity outcomes relative to the general population, and (2) which mechanisms and risk factors are associated with longevity and are potential precursors to early mortality? For starters, and as Mike Freeman of CBSSports.com pointed out on Tuesday, it cuts against the perception that football pro players generally die young. Lemez, S., Baker, J. Further, Norwegian divers [8] and skiers [22] and Italian track and field athletes [58] had greater lifespan longevities relative to controls from their respective countries as well. Belli S, Vanacore N. Proportionate mortality of Italian soccer players: is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis an occupational disease? 2007;31:93340. As a variety of socioeconomic, demographic, and epidemiologic factors dynamically interact to shape population change [72], so do factors that influence holistic health. Seventeen additional articles were retrieved from reference lists found in these papers and a general web search. doi:10.1055/s-00281128150. Boren S, Erickson TB. The precocity-longevity hypothesis: earlier peaks in career achievement predict shorter lives. On the lower end, they can make $28,400 or --- per hour, perhaps when just starting out or based on the state you live in. Impact of height and weight on life span. Nature. This is an addition of 43 peer-reviewed studies that were not included in Teramoto and Bungums [16] review (11 peer-reviewed studies overlap). While a full electronic search strategy for at least one database is recommended [33], we further located research articles by searching the references of records that were identified through our database search, in addition to performing a general web search through the Google Scholar search engine. 2011;113:81524. Morcet J, Perrin M, Trgaro M, Carr F, Deugnier Y. Mortality in a cohort of 514 elite road cyclists. 1993;2:23744. PubMed Further, weight also influenced the lifespan longevities of baseball players [61, 69] and played a role in the longevities of Japanese sumo wrestlers, although its influence appeared to be small [OR=1.08, CI 1.011.15; 57]. Of the 54 peer-reviewed studies included, 4 were responses to the authors of different studies related to mortality and longevity of elite athletes [29, 30, 42, 44]. Article Farahmand B, Broman G, de Faire U, Vger D, Ahlbom A. Exercise and the heartthe harm of too little and too much. The study encompassed former players who spent at least five years in the NFL from 1959 through 1993, covering 3,439 men. Which Athletes Have the Longest Life Expectancy? Using mortality statistics of elite athletes who played in the earlier decades to make inferences regarding holistic health in present-day athletes may be deceptive. A systematic review of literature was performed using the Web of Science database (1 January 198030 September 2014; see Tables1 and and2).2). 2011;32:6447. For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines). Int J of Sports Med. The objective of our review was to advance knowledge on elite athlete mortality and longevity to ultimately determine whether elite-level participation in high-performance sport produces a lifespan longevity advantage. [32] examined 38 studies that measured physical activity and all-cause mortality in samples of physically active individuals (non-elite athletes) and reported an overall significant relationship between physical activity participation and lower all-cause mortality. Click here to sign in with While their study makes an important contribution to our knowledge of longevity outcomes in elite sport, the restrictive sampling frame necessary for a meta-analysis excluded numerous studies that could inform our broader understanding of elite athlete health. For comparison, the average U.S. lifespan is 76 years old for males and 81 females. Daily science news on research developments and the latest scientific innovations, The latest engineering, electronics and technology advances, The most comprehensive sci-tech news coverage on the web. Although it may be premature to conclude that other databases have similar fallibility (e.g., missing death date data), we must be cautious of the possible incongruency between reported and unreported/unknown death date data in other studies that bias lifespan longevity results. 2010;34:7181. Scand J of Med and Sci in Sports. Saint Onge JM, Rogers RG, Krueger PM. SL and JB designed the study, developed the methodology, interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript. Understanding of an athletes lifespan is limited with a much more sophisticated knowledge of their competitive careers and little knowledge of post-career outcomes. The average age in esports versus NFL, NBA, MLB, NHL The Shortened Career Span Of Professional Athletes - OsVehicle 2013. doi:10.1111/sms.12122. Phillips DP, Van Voorhees CA, Ruth TE. As highlighted in this review, weight is an important predictor of mortality risk. Do Elite Athletes Live Longer? A Systematic Review of or, by Luke Lambert, City University London. Interestingly, insight into post-career outcomes is significantly limited. J of Psychosom Res. [7] indicated that elite athletes live longer than the general population, with an all-cause pooled standard mortality ratio (SMR) of 0.67 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.550.81; P<0.001). This finding is interesting because women tend to live longer than men on Okorodudu DO, Jumean MF, Montori VM, Romero-Corral A, Somers VK, Erwin PJ, et al. Aging Clin Exp Res. For example, it has been suggested that a measure of BMI is likely to overestimate adiposity in muscular athletes (e.g., [71]), particularly in NFL players [19]. Novel metabolic risk factors for incident heart failure and their relationship with obesity: the MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis) study. 1993;76:17182. Cite this article. Some examples include smoking and diet/nutrition (as stated by Teramoto and Bungum) [16], lifespan health (psychosocial and physical, such as the influence of morbidity on life quality, etc. Med and Sci in Sports and Exerc. WebThat means the average professional athlete will likely retire before they hit age 30; according to the RBC research, the average retirement age for MLB players is 29.5, Sixth, high achievement in sport emerged as a determinant of mortality, specifically through winning percentage in Japanese sumo wrestlers [57], handicap in Swedish golfers [11], and Hall of Fame (HOF) induction in a diverse range of sports [37, 59]. Golf: a game of life and deathreduced mortality in Swedish golf players. For general inquiries, please use our contact form. Baron S, Rinsky R. Health hazard evaluation report, National Football League players mortality study. Unfortunately, Smiths [30] critique of Abel and Krugers [37] conclusion (cases without death date data were treated as living players) that HOF non-inductees had a 5-year lifespan longevity advantage was not the only study on MLB player longevity that used the same database (e.g., [17, 35, 36, 3840, 45]). [, Sarna S, Sahi T, Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J. Survival function estimates for champions tour golfers. ", More information: The average professional athlete has a lifespan of about 55 years. Teramoto M, Bungum TJ. From 1 January 1980 to 30 September 2014, we located 54 peer-reviewed studies [36, 815, 1731, 3561] and three online articles [6264] that examined mortality and longevity in elite athletes (n=57). Res in Sports Med. In addition, playing position and weight, as well as education and race, appeared to be consistent indicators of mortality risk, whereas other mechanisms such as handedness, precocity, and names and initials appeared to be less consistent and/or examined. The highest average salaries in professional sports are those of NBA players. Early cardiovascular mortality in professional football players: fact or fiction? For example, Garatachea et al. Epidemiological studies with long-term follow-ups are also rare [55]. In this study, we focus on mortality of previously elite athletes. WebBaseball, football, soccer, basketball, and cycling had the most reported data on elite athletes' lifespan longevities. Res in Sports Med. Lllgen H, Bckenhoff A, Knapp G. Int J Sports Med. Both authors declare that they have no competing interests. We identified 100 elite athletes from each of the ten selected sports to determine average life expectancy. The longevity of international rugby players. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Lehman EJ, Hein MJ, Baron SL, Gersic CM. Lawler TP, Lawler FH. Continued contributions to the growing body of research on longevity outcomes of elite athletes should utilize appropriate statistical testing with reliable and complete databases. For example, handedness is unlikely to be measured in soccer players, and the influence of position in non-contact sports may be more relevant in life quality research rather than life longevity. 2012;23:5568. Springer Nature. 1990;6:25760. Saint Onge JM, Rogers RG, Krueger PM. As a result, studies with important information regarding longevity in elite athletes were excluded, such as greater longevity in Norwegian professional divers (hazard ratio [HR]=0.79, 95% CI 0.630.997) [8], and important mechanisms that may influence longevity, such as sex, as indicated by Olympic medal-winning females having greater longevity relative to Olympic medal-winning male athletes (HR=0.61, 95% CI 0.510.72) [9], and race, as indicated by African-American professional basketball players having a 77% greater risk of death compared with white players (HR=1.77, 95% CI 1.352.32) [10]. We identified 1001 records through database searching using the aforementioned keywords. Percept and Mot Skills. To this end, future research of athlete lifespan outcomes can arguably have the greatest impact by determining the causes of mortality. First, they represent a relatively homogenous occupational population, similar to Teramoto and Bungums [16] classification of a distinct physically fit and healthy group, and, perhaps more importantly, many sports contain detailed statistical and historical databases that track a variety of variables that can influence longevity (e.g., anthropometrics, performance-based indicators such as induction into the HOF, etc.). Holt NL. The 517 former NFL players who died during that 35-year period did so at an average age of 59.6 years; the baseball players at 66.7 years. Moreover, it is notable that the sports examined have examined periods of different length. The in-depth study by the International Longevity Center UK (ILC) and supported by the Business School (formerly Cass)based on records over a 180-year-spanfinds large differences in the longevity of elite sportsmen in football, cricket, rugby union, tennis, golf, boxing and horse racing compared with males in the general population that were born in the same year. With regard to athlete race, this has been shown to be associated with longevity in NBA [10] and NFL players [19], as well as with education and longevity in MLB players [45]. 2011;21:3518. [, Garatachea N, Santos-Lozano A, Sanchis-Gomar F, Fiuza-Luces C, Pareja-Galeano H, Emanuele E, et al. Kalist DE, Peng Y. Future research on mortality in elite athletes would benefit from more comprehensive statistical measures and reliable databases to determine potential mechanisms that may influence mortality trends and causes in both athlete and non-athlete samples. Samaras TT, Storms LH. The researchers then compared these elite athletes to 1,712 ordinary Finnish men who were not competitive athletes. As such, there is an opportunity to grow our current limited understanding of longevity outcomes of elite athletes by examining a wider range of studies and sports through a systematic review. Another criticism of the athlete-mortality literature is on methodological grounds; more specifically, cross-study discrepancies in the statistical tests and/or measures used. It is noteworthy that there has been some criticism regarding the methodologies used in these studies, such as using selective data and the appropriateness of the statistical tests performed [29, 30]. Mayo Clin Proc. The longevity of sporting legends. Further, weight also influenced the lifespan longevities of baseball players [61, 69] and played a role in the longevities of Japanese sumo wrestlers, although its influence appeared to be small [OR=1.08, CI 1.011.15; 57]. All-cause and disease-specific mortality among male, former elite athletes: an average 50-year follow-up. Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for assessing the quality of non-randomized studies in meta-analysis. Euro J of Epidemiol. PLoS Med. We identified 1001 records through database searching using the aforementioned keywords. These advantages help contribute to the growing body of research on elite athlete mortality trends, which in turn can advance research by forming evidence-based models of athlete longevity through investigations into a variety of variables. Neurodegenerative causes of death among retired National Football League players. Res in Sports Med: An Int J. Gajewski AK, Poznaska A. Mortality of top athletes, actors and clergy in Poland: 19242000 follow-up study of the longer term effect of physical activity. Aside from the studies or reviews that examined multiple sports, professional baseball players (n=16), football players (4 peer-reviewed, 2 online), soccer players (n=4), basketball players (n=3), and cyclists (n=3) were identified through our literature search as having the most reported data on elite athletes mortality outcomes. Moreover, those with a playing time body mass index (BMI) of >30kg/m2 had a significantly higher risk of CVD, which was also influenced by race/ethnicity [19]. Survival of the fittest: retrospective cohort study of the longevity of Olympic medallists in the modern era. Miles L. Physical activity and health. Do Elite Athletes Live Longer? A Systematic Review of Beaglehole R, Stewart A. Death Stud. [. PubMed Notably, the majority of mixed-sport studies included in this review also found support for greater longevity for athletes who competed at elite levels of competition (e.g., Olympics). CAS As a whole, the empirical evidence suggests that several mechanisms within and between sports have powerful effects on the overall lifespan longevities of players. Further, while it has been suggested that health is influenced by certain symbolic aspects of the environment [66], such as a decreased prevalence of death before birthdays (e.g., [67]), the scientific rationale behind the initials of a name affecting lifespan longevity is limited. There are many factors that Further, plenty of corroborating evidence suggests health-care services alone do not result in improved health outcomes, but a variety of social factors such as education and employment produce these widespread biases in health (e.g., [73]). The Finnish experience. Scand J of Med and Sci in Sports. Of those 465,575 examined, only 5610 (1.2%) were female athletes. Accessed 12 Sept 2014. Abel EL, Kruger ML. 2000;34:4459. SL collected the data. In addition, former athletes have been found to partake in fewer negative health habits, such as smoking and drinking alcohol [79]. As such, our current understanding of elite athletes quality of life during and after sport is limited relative to their lifespan longevity trends. Google Scholar. Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. We keep our content available to everyone. Our objective was to extend the narrative review of Teramoto and Bungum [16] with a more comprehensive and up-to-date list of studies on mortality and longevity in previously elite athletes. As a result, overall mortality risk is explained by several modifiable factors, such as obesity and physical inactivity, and non-modifiable (unchangeable) factors, such as age and race, that are unique to athletes. Considerable research attention has been given to identifying which mechanisms may be precursors to early mortality, including handedness, precocity, names and initials of players/athletes, playing position and weight, education and race, achievement, and energy system classifications. Diagnostic performance of body mass index to identify obesity as defined by body adiposity: a systematic review and meta- analysis. [. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097. This potential association emphasizes negative long-term neurological outcomes of performance demands that are not reflected in MR occurrence. ), psychosocial measures, collegiate athletes, and studies on the effectiveness of pre-screening strategies and prevention. A variety of mechanisms have attempted to explain mortality risk (e.g., handedness, playing position, achievement, etc.). Past work examining this issue in depth appears to be limited, although the Finnish studies that examined lifespan longevities of former elite endurance, team, and power athletes who represented Finland between the years 1920 and 1965 are exceptions (e.g., [36]). Scand J of Med and Sci in Sports. As a result, overall mortality risk is explained by several modifiable factors, such as obesity and physical inactivity, and non-modifiable (unchangeable) factors, such as age and race, that are unique to athletes. The Econ and Labour Relations Rev. PubMedGoogle Scholar. English language articles were searched using the Web of Science database. First, the relationship between handedness and mortality in elite athletes has received increased attention within the last two decades. School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, M3J 1P3 ON Canada. Fafian Jr J. Mortality experience of National Basketball Association players. In contrast, a caveat to this tendency of measuring the effects of sport-specific variables on mortality is that the amount of data available varies from sport to sport and may be somewhat arbitrary. Aggleton JP, Bland JM, Kentridge RW, Neave NJ. Golf: a game of life and deathreduced mortality in Swedish golf players. Mortality resulting from head injury in professional boxing. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. average Although there has been some evidence that former intercollegiate student athletes fail to maintain higher exercise levels later in life [75], our understanding of the impact of different longitudinal lifestyle factors influencing lifespan longevity remains incomplete. Do professional athletes have a shorter lifespan on average? 2007;31:65370. This manuscript does not contain clinical studies or patient data. Survival of the fittest: retrospective cohort study of the longevity of Olympic medallists in the modern era. 2007;28:697702. Przeglad Epidemiologiczny. 2014 Sep;89:1195200. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Mortality of French participants in the Tour de France (19472012). Former football pros die at a faster rate than baseball - Science As a result, mechanisms such as race have since been validated as more consistent indicators of early mortality (e.g., [10, 19]). Further, while it has been suggested that health is influenced by certain symbolic aspects of the environment [66], such as a decreased prevalence of death before birthdays (e.g., [67]), the scientific rationale behind the initials of a name affecting lifespan longevity is limited. This raises an important concern about the cross-sport generalizability disseminated in this review. Aside from the studies or reviews that examined multiple sports, professional baseball players (n=16), football players (4 peer-reviewed, 2 online), soccer players (n=4), basketball players (n=3), and cyclists (n=3) were identified through our literature search as having the most reported data on elite athletes mortality outcomes. NFL trumpets lifespan study to former players Future research into the mechanisms that may affect mortality risk is important for a better understanding of life expectancies in both eminent and non-eminent populations. Handedness and longevity: archival study of cricketers. Coate D, Sun R. Survival estimates for elite male and female Olympic athletes and tennis championship competitors. An updated assessment of baseball player data. North Am Actuar J. Baker J, Horton S. A review of primary and secondary influences on sport expertise. CAS Fifty-four peer-reviewed publications and three articles from online sources met the criteria for inclusion. Full citations provided in reference list; all LE and MR data were compared to age-matched controls from the GP and all studies were on male participants, unless stated otherwise; descriptions reflect only the key findings, AD Alzheimers disease, ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, BMI body mass index, CI confidence interval, CVD cardiovascular disease, GP general population, HOF hall of fame, HR hazard rate/ratio of death, LE life expectancy, M mean, MLB Major League Baseball, MR mortality rate, NBA National Basketball Association, NFL National Football League; OR odds ratio for mortality, PL powerlifting, R explained variation/total variation (coefficient of determination), RCS relative conditional survival, RSR relative survival ratio, SD standard deviation, SMR standardized mortality ratio, SPMR standardized proportionate mortality ratio, SW sumo wrestling, T and F track and field, Online elite athlete mortality articles (n=3). official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Fogelholm M, Kaprio J, Sarna S. Healthy lifestyles of former Finnish world class athletes. To broaden our knowledge on holistic health outcomes and behavior in former athletes, it is important to consider the totality of data that have been collected and analyzed to date, particularly as research pertaining to the whole person (e.g., physical and psychosocial measures) in modern competitive athletes gains momentum. Further, given this reviews objective, Web of Sciences databases appeared to be the most relevant to our study (e.g., Science Citation Index Expanded). 1994;309:2431. Zwiers R, Zantvoord FWA, Engelaer FM, van Bodegom D, van der Ouderaa FJG, Westendorp RGJ. Scand J of Med and Sci in Sports. In particular, weight and position significantly influenced mortality risk in NFL players [19, 49, 50, 6163, 68]. Olympic Athletes Live Longer Than General Population - Medical Download .nbib Lawler TP, Lawler FH, Gibson J, Murray R. Does the African-American-white mortality gap persist after playing professional basketball? Based on the latest jobs data nationwide, Professional Athlete's can make an average annual salary of $80,490, or --- per hour. 2014. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-49.3.18. 2004;15:21128. Specifically, these three additional articles were located through Google Scholars search engine using the same keywords as used in the Web of Science database search (e.g., athletes, death, etc.). Comparing the WWFs Death Rate to the NFLs And Other Pro Ageing Res Rev. The in-depth study by the International Longevity Center UK (ILC) and supported by the Business School (formerly Cass)based on records over a 180-year Zwiers R, Zantvoord FWA, Engelaer FM, van Bodegom D, van der Ouderaa FJG, Westendorp RGJ, et al. Participation in elite sport is generally favorable to lifespan longevity. Presumably, elite athletes possess advantageous genetic traits. Occup Med. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (. Kujala UM, Sarna S, Kaprio J, Tikkanen HO, Koskenvuo M. Natural selection to sports, later physical activity habits, and coronary heart disease. In turn, the emergence of a hypothetical name-longevity relationship in elite athletes emphasizes the need for greater replication in this area of research. Top-level sportsmen may live 13 percent longer than the Coate D, Schwenkenberg J. As highlighted in this review, weight is an important predictor of mortality risk. Although it may be premature to conclude that other databases have similar fallibility (e.g., missing death date data), we must be cautious of the possible incongruency between reported and unreported/unknown death date data in other studies that bias lifespan longevity results. Attaining a complete understanding of an athletes lifespan requires knowledge of the inherent complexity of relationships that link hereditary and environmental characteristics to developmental outcomes. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0, http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp, http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/nflfactsheet.pdf, http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=2313476, http://grantland.com/features/comparing-mortality-rates-football-baseball/, http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-49.3.18, Significant differences in longevity related to handedness (, Median post-induction survival for HOFs was 5years shorter than for non-inducted players, 18years (CI 15.021.0) vs. 23years (CI 22.123.9) for matched controls (OR=1.37, CI 1.081.73); (death2002), LE: 4.8years longer (SD=15.0); career length increased longevity (, Earlier career debut predicted earlier death (, The most common toxin that lead to death by poisoning was carbon monoxide; low overall risk (death 18891995), Greater longevity overall (SMR=0.31); positive relationship between education and longevity (HR=0.74, CI 0.560.977); black players had a HR 2.47 times greater than white players (19631996 debut), Greater longevity rates throughout the last century (19001999 debut); (SMR=0.87, CI 0.850.89; 19301999), LE: ~5years longer, compared to 20-year-old U.S. males; at 20years, players from the Modern Era can expect to live 65.5 vs. 52.4years and 58.3years from the Early and Golden Eras, respectively (19022004 debut), Greater longevity overall (SMR=0.94); longevity was correlated with position and in-game achievement (19111925 debut), Greater longevity overall, particularly in guards (active 19461994).
La Crescent Grape Vines For Sale, Badboyhalo Zodiac Sign, Articles A